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Ask directly: “electrode 3.2 overhead”, “a5”, “IPE 200 6 m”, “E7018”, “135”, “S355”, “DIN 150 A”.

Calculators

Welding current by electrode diameter 2.5 mm electrode: 70–100 A; 3.2 mm: 90–140 A; 4 mm: 130–190 A in the flat position. The calculator corrects for position and coating and checks the diameter.
Electrode consumption A kilo holds about 44 electrodes of 2.5 mm, 30 of 3 mm, 27 of 3.2 mm and 13 of 4 mm. Full table by rod length, worked example and a calculator per metre of weld.
Cost per metre of weld How much welding costs: a metre of MAG V weld in 10 mm plate is about €11, 79 % of it labour. Cost per metre, foot and inch from your prices, in your currency.
Preheat temperature Whether to preheat and to what temperature: method B of EN 1011-2 with CET, plate thickness, hydrogen scale and heat input.
Acceptance limits ISO 5817 Undercut, pores, excess weld metal, root concavity, misalignment: the ISO 5817 limit at level B, C or D for your thickness, with ready tables for C and B.
pWPS generator Pick the process, material group and thickness — the generator drafts the pWPS to ISO 15609-1: edge preparation, filler, gas, current and thermal regime. Download and complete it.
VT report Give the quality level, weld type and thickness — the generator builds the VT report: test conditions to ISO 17637 and the acceptance table to ISO 5817.
Weld schedule Enter the welds of the item: type, size, length and quantity. The calculator gives the ISO 2553 designation, the section, the deposited metal and the filler, time and gas.
Bill of materials List the catalogue sections and the items by dimensions: the calculator gives the mass of each, the total with a cutting allowance and the cost of the steel.
Cutting plan Give the part lengths and quantities: the calculator lays them out on stock bars and returns the number of bars, the real offcut in millimetres and per cent, and a cutting card.
Pipe notching template Enter the diameters and the angle: you get a wrap-around template to print at 1:1, wrap round the pipe and cut along. Saddle at 30–90°, hole in the run pipe, segmented bend.
Cone flat pattern Enter two diameters, the height and the plate thickness: the calculator gives radii R1 and R2, the sector angle, the blank size and mass, draws the pattern and exports DXF.
WPQR range of qualification Enter the test piece data and the calculator returns the level 2 range of qualification to EN ISO 15614-1: thickness, diameter, positions, heat input, preheat and interpass.
Qualification range EN ISO 9606 Enter thickness, diameter, position: 10 mm plate covers 3–20 mm, 60.3 pipe from 30.2 mm, butt PF: PA and PF (PF fillet test: +PB), H-L045 all but PG. Plus the 6-month signature.
Wire feed speed 1.0 mm wire at 130 A runs at about 5.5 m/min, 1.2 mm at 200 A at 5.8 m/min. Feed speed from current or back, 0.8–1.6 mm solid wire, with deposition in kg/h.
Duty cycle and fuse size Duty cycle at any current: 60 % at 160 A runs nonstop at about 124 A. Plus the input current I₁eff and the C-curve breaker or fuse your welder really needs.
Tungsten electrode selection Which tungsten to use and at what diameter: current range by type and polarity, the colour code and the tip grind angle for the job.
Shielding gas selection M21 = Ar + 15–25 % CO₂ for steel, M12 for stainless, pure argon I1 for aluminium and TIG. Gives the mix, the EN ISO 14175 code and the flow in l/min.
Fillet weld: throat and leg Leg z = throat a × 1.414: an a4 fillet has a 5.66 mm leg, a5 — 7.07 mm. Convert a to z and back, with deposited area and filler mass per metre of weld.
Welding unit converter 35 cfh = 16.5 l/min, 300 ipm = 7.6 m/min, 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa: convert AWS and ASME data-sheet units, with worked examples and traps.
Shielding gas consumption 40 l at 200 bar = 8,000 l of gas, about 11 h of arc at 12 l/min. Gas per shift, what is left from the gauge, CO₂ by weight, CFH to l/min.
Steel weight calculator Ø12 round bar — 0.888 kg/m, 40×5 flat bar — 1.57 kg/m, 1 mm sheet — 7.85 kg/m². One calculator for every shape and metal: steel, stainless, aluminium, copper, brass.
Steel beam weight IPE 200 — 22.4 kg/m, HEB 200 — 61.3 kg/m, HEA 200 — 42.3 kg/m. Weight per meter and per 6 m and 12 m bar from EN 10365 tables, plus a calculator for length and quantity.
Steel channel weight UPN 100 — 10.6 kg/m, UPN 200 — 25.3 kg/m, UPN 160 — 18.8 kg/m. Weight per meter, per 6 m and 12 m bar and for a whole order, plus UPN vs UPE explained.
Steel angle weight L 50×50×5 — 3.77 kg/m, L 100×100×10 — 15.0. Every size to EN 10056-1 with 6 m and 12 m bar weights and a calculator for length and quantity.
Beam deflection and stress Deflection, moment and bending stress σ = M/W for IPE, HEA, HEB, UPN, tubes and flat bar in steel, stainless and aluminium. Formulas, IPE 200 example, L/250 and L/300.
Tube and hollow section 40×40×3 hollow section — 3.30 kg/m, 60×40×3 — 4.25, 42.4×3.2 tube — 3.09 kg/m. Enter size and wall for one piece, a batch or a metre; EN 10219 tables and formulas.
Sheet metal weight Steel 1 mm = 7.85 kg/m², 2 mm — 15.7, 5 mm — 39.25. Weight of a 1250×2500 or 1500×3000 sheet and of a whole batch, with worked examples.
Aluminium weight 2 mm sheet — 5.4 kg/m², 40×40×2 box section — 0.821 kg/m, Ø20 bar — 0.848 kg/m. Aluminium (aluminum) weight of sheet, tube, angle, bar; alloy densities, lb/ft.
Aluminium sheet The weight of aluminium sheet from 1 to 10 mm thick: kilograms per square metre, cross-section and a calculator for any sheet size.
Aluminium box section The weight of aluminium box section: twelve common sizes from 15×15×2 to 80×80×4 with the mass per metre and a calculator for any section.
Aluminium tube Aluminium (aluminum) round tube weight: 20×2 mm is 0.305 kg/m, 30×2 0.475 kg/m, 50×3 1.20 kg/m. Sizes 12×1 to 80×3 and a calculator for any diameter and wall.
Aluminium angle Aluminium (aluminum) angle weight: 30×30×3 mm is 0.462 kg/m, 40×40×3 0.624 kg/m. Sizes 15×15×2 to 80×80×6 and a calculator for any leg and thickness.
Aluminium flat bar The weight of aluminium flat bar from 15×2 to 100×10: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any width and thickness.
Aluminium round bar The weight of aluminium round bar from 6 to 50 mm: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any diameter.
Carbon equivalent CE CE (IIW) and CET from the mill certificate analysis: below 0.40 no preheat, from 0.40 preheat per EN 1011-2. Worked examples for S235, S355, C45; preheat for your thickness.
Shade number DIN Which shade number to set on the helmet for MMA, MIG/MAG, TIG or cutting at a given current, following EN 169 and EN ISO 16321-2.
Heat input Q = k·U·I·60/(v·1000) kJ/mm: MAG at 220 A, 24 V and 300 mm/min gives 0.84 kJ/mm. k factor per process (EN 1011-1), kJ/cm to kJ/mm, WPS limits, worked examples.
Cooling time t8/5 10 mm plate at 1.2 kJ/mm cools 800→500 °C in 14.7 s, 20 mm in 5.7 s. EN 1011-2 2D/3D formulas, a t8/5 table by heat input and the 5–25 s window.
Hardness: HV, HB, HRC Convert HV, HB and HRC both ways: 300 HV = 285 HB = 29.8 HRC, 700 HV = 60.1 HRC. Full ISO 18265 table, tensile strength, worked examples and the 380 HV10 HAZ limit.
Deposited metal and passes 10 mm V butt weld: 0.49 kg of weld metal per metre, 0.53 kg of MAG wire; 20 mm plate: 8 MAG passes. Groove area, deposit, consumable and arc time for V, X and fillet welds.
Groove preparation Give the thickness, the process and the access to the joint; the calculator proposes the preparation type, angle, root gap and root face from the usual ISO 9692-1 tables.
Chromium and nickel equivalents Cr-eq = Cr + Mo + 1.5Si + 0.5Nb + 2Ti, Ni-eq = Ni + 30C + 0.5Mn. Enter parent metals and filler: the weld point on the Schaeffler diagram and its risk zone.
Wire length on a spool A 15 kg spool of 1.0 mm wire is about 2,430 m, 5 kg about 810 m; 0.8 mm gives 3,800 and 1,270 m. Length from mass and diameter, arc minutes, what is left.
Cable voltage drop 200 A over 20 m loses 5.6 V on 25 mm² copper and 2.8 V on 50 mm². Volts lost, share of arc voltage and cable heat, with worked examples.
Generator for a welder A 200 A stick inverter needs about 9 kVA with PFC and 12.5 kVA without. Size from I₁max on the plate, compare kVA not kW, and switch eco mode off.
Welding cable size 150 A over 10 m needs 16 mm², 200 A over 30 m 70 mm²: welding cable size by current and length, a ready table, and the volts a long lead costs at the arc.
Stainless steel weight Density of 304 — 7.90 g/cm³, 316L — 8.00. 2 mm sheet 15.80 kg/m², 42.4×2 tube 2.005 kg/m, 40×40×2 box section 2.402 kg/m. Calculator and tables.
Stainless steel sheet Stainless sheet 1 mm — 7.90 kg/m², 2 mm — 15.80; a 1250×2500×2 sheet 49.4 kg, ×3 74.1 kg. Grades 304 and 316L, thicknesses 0.5–10 mm and a calculator.
Stainless steel tube Stainless tube 42.4×2 — 2.005 kg/m, 48.3×2 — 2.298, 29×1.5 hygienic (DN25) — 1.024 kg/m. Tables to EN 10217-7, EN 10296-2, DIN 11850 and a calculator.
Stainless round bar Stainless round bar Ø10 — 0.620 kg/m, Ø20 — 2.482, Ø30 — 5.584 kg/m (304). Mass for 304 and 316L, formula 0.006205·d², square and hexagon bar.
Rebar Rebar weight: 8 mm — 0.395 kg/m, 10 mm — 0.617, 12 mm — 0.888, 16 mm — 1.578 kg/m; a tonne of 12 mm is 1126 m. Chart 6–40 mm to EN 10080, 6 m and 12 m bars.
Steel round and square bar Steel round bar Ø10 — 0.617 kg/m, Ø20 — 2.466, Ø30 — 5.549, Ø50 — 15.41 kg/m; 20 mm square — 3.14 kg/m. EN 10060 and EN 10059 tables, formula 0.006165·d².
Project calculators Six calculators that work out a whole project rather than a single figure: cutting list, mass of steel, length of welds and current. Bench, gate, carport, canopy, fence, stairs.
Copper weight Copper sheet 1 mm is 8.96 kg/m², Ø10 bar 0.704 kg/m, 15×1 EN 1057 tube 0.391 kg/m. Tables of common sizes, Cu-ETP and Cu-DHP grades, and a calculator.
Brass weight Brass sheet 1 mm is 8.50 kg/m², Ø20 round bar 2.67 kg/m, 17 mm hex 2.13 kg/m. Densities of CuZn37, CuZn39Pb3 and CuZn40, size tables and a calculator.
Tread plate weight Steel teardrop plate 3 mm weighs about 26 kg/m², 5 mm 42 kg/m²; aluminium five-bar 2/3.5 is 5.6–5.8 kg/m². Weights of 1000×2000, 1250×2500, 1500×3000 sheets.
Steel flat bar 40×4 flat bar weighs 1.256 kg/m, 50×5 1.96 and 100×10 7.85 kg/m. Size chart to EN 10058 and EN 10278, 6 m lengths, metres per tonne, galvanized flat and a calculator.
Sheet metal bend allowance 2 mm sheet, r = 2 mm, 90° bend, 50 + 50 mm outside flanges — flat length 96.16 mm. Bend allowance, bend deduction, K-factor by DIN 6935 or 0.33/0.44/0.5, min radius.
Press brake tonnage 2 mm S235 sheet on a V16 die needs about 16.6 t per metre of bend. Tonnage in tonnes, kN and US tons, t/m chart by thickness and V, inside radius 0.16·V, min flange.
Welding quote calculator Build a welding quote: metal by weight, welding costed from the weld section (wire, gas, power, time), labour, margin and tax. Prints to PDF with your header.
Welder’s log Shifts, hours, metres of weld and joints — and what you have earned this week, this month and on each job.
Welding simulator Stick, MIG and TIG in three positions: speed, arc length and angle by hand, real arc sound, ISO 6520-1 imperfections and a cut-open weld at the end.

Welding processes

MMA — stick welding What MMA welding is (manual metal arc, stick, process 111) and how to do it: arc length about one electrode diameter, angle, weave, current by electrode size, bead faults.
MIG/MAG welding MIG 131 or MAG 135: same machine, different gas. Short-circuit at 16–22 V, spray from 26–28 V, pulsed; wire, voltage and gas by plate thickness, torch angle, faults.
Flux-cored welding 136 Process 136 = flux-cored wire with shielding gas, 138 = metal-cored, 114 = self-shielded, no gas. Polarity, 15–25 mm stickout, drag angle, E71T-1 and T 46 4 P M21.
135 vs 136 vs 138 135 is solid wire, 136 flux-cored, 138 metal-cored — all MAG. Side by side: gas (M21, C1), stick-out 10–15 vs 15–25 mm, slag, positions, fume, what ISO 9606-1 covers.
Submerged arc welding 121 What 121 means in ISO 4063: solid wire under flux, sub-numbers 122 and 125, positions PA and PB, fused and agglomerated fluxes, operator qualification to ISO 14732.
Gas welding 311 Tip size by thickness and gas use (2 mm sheet: 155 l/h of acetylene), pressures 2.5 and 0.2–0.5 bar, the neutral flame, filler d = s/2 + 1, flashback.
TIG welding Process 141 is TIG (GTAW) with filler, 142 without. Amps by thickness (3 mm — 90–130 A), argon 5–12 l/min, AC for aluminium, DC− for steel, tungsten choice.

Welding parameters

Joint preparation I, V, X, U and K preparations: the angle, root face and gap for each thickness, how the edge is cut and cleaned, and what too narrow a groove costs.
The weld pool Weld pool meaning in one line: the metal molten under the arc right now. Its width, shine and edges tell you whether current, speed and angle are right, and what to change.
Welding positions PA flat, PB/PC horizontal, PD/PE overhead, PF up, PG down: ISO 6947 chart with 1G–6G equivalents, current −15 % for vertical and −20 % overhead, what a test covers.

Filler metals and gases

Electrode catalogue OK 48.00, Basic 7018, FOX EV 50, OK 46.00 side by side: coating, AC or DC+, EN ISO and AWS class, diameters, baking. Find a substitute.
Electrode coating types How rutile, basic, cellulosic and acid coatings differ in arc behaviour, hydrogen level and position — and what each one is for.

Materials and weldability

Steel weldability What weldability means, steel groups to ISO/TR 15608, carbon equivalent CE and CET, when to preheat, why hardenable, stainless, cast iron and galvanised steel are harder.
Welding stainless steel Which electrode and wire for 304 and 316L (E 19 9 L, E 19 12 3 L), Ar + 2 % CO₂, heat input worked out for TIG and MAG, sensitisation, pickling heat tint, duplex.
Welding aluminium AC balance, argon and Ar-He from 6 mm, why MIG needs push-pull, filler by alloy series (5xxx, 6xxx, castings) and a worked 6082 frame example.
Welding cast iron Weld cast iron cold with a nickel rod (ENi-CI or ENiFe-CI) at about 25 A per mm — 80 A for 3.2 mm — in 20–40 mm peened runs, or hot at 500–600 °C. Why it cracks.
Welding dissimilar steels Why 309L and not 308L: a worked Schaeffler example at 30, 50 and 70 % dilution, arc placement, MIG wire and electrode codes, preheat by the carbon steel side, typical cracks.
Interpass temperature S355: from preheat up to 250 °C, austenitic stainless 150 °C, duplex 150, 6xxx aluminium about 120 °C. Measuring to ISO 13916, the effect on t8/5 with an example, WPQR +50 °C.
Heat tint on stainless steel Pale straw about 290 °C, gold 340, brown 390, light blue 600, grey above 700. What the colour means, AWS D18.1 levels inside tube, pickling and passivation.

Products and structures

Carports A 3×6 m carport takes about 440 kg of steel: 100×100×4 posts welded with a3 fillets, 8° roof fall, footings and trusses — six options for every joint.
Gates and wickets A sliding gate in section, six types of gate, posts and foundations, what closes the leaf, and sizing the operator by the weight it has to move.
Fences A whole fence bay with its foundation in section, six kinds of infill, and six ways of setting a post in ground that freezes and heaves.
Stairs and railings A flight in section with the step dimensions, six types of staircase, six fixing details, and six ways of closing the gap in a railing.
Door canopies A 1.2×1.5 m canopy is about 34 kg of steel but carries 160 kg of snow. Which tubes, which anchors for each wall, the bracket weld and mistakes to avoid.
Garages and sheds The frame of a garage taken apart, six types from profiled sheet to sandwich panel, and why steel sweats inside without vents under the eaves.
Halls and frames A hangar frame in section with its purlins and bracing, six ways of covering a span, and what happens when bracing is struck off the quotation.
Platforms and walkways How an access platform is built, six kinds of platform, what closes the gap between beams, guardrails to the standard and industrial stairs.
Frames and jigs How a pump bedplate is built, six jobs on frames and jigs and six versions of a machine guard — what decides alignment and access.
Storage and handling How a pallet racking bay is built, six ways of storing and six things on the move — trolleys, stillages, pallets and ramps; what the forklift dictates.
Grilles, doors and hatches A window grille and a hinged one, a boiler room door, a floor hatch, a light-well grating and an air conditioner cage — how each one is built.
Yard and garden How a gazebo is built and how it differs from a carport, six greenhouse frames, garden furniture and yard oddments — from a swing to a bin shelter.
Barbecues and stoves How a firebox is built and why the wall thickness decides it, six kinds of barbecue and six layouts of a set, the flue and the draught.
Furniture and interior A steel base for a 160×90 cm table weighs about 16 kg: which tube, six frame joints, fixing tops that move with the seasons, and shelving that will not rack.
Brackets and fixings How a bracket for an outdoor unit is built, six common brackets and six household oddments — why overturning is what gets calculated, not weight.
Stainless equipment Stainless work tables, sinks and hoods for food plants: 304 or 316, TIG with 308L and back purge, and the six details checked at acceptance — corner radius, weld, foot gap.
Tanks and pipework How a rectangular tank is built, six jobs on vessels, six kinds of pipework joint and six ventilation parts — what gets welded and what gets bought.
Repairs and rebuilding Six repair techniques and the work that comes with machinery: a stop-drilled crack, an insert, hardfacing a worn surface, cast iron and aluminium.
How ordering works What the price is made of, how the order runs week by week, how to choose a coating and the fixings, and what insulation actually buys you.

Build it yourself

Workbench A 1500 × 700 × 850 bench in 40×40×2: 12.3 m of tube, 29 kg frame, 33 kg top. Enter your size for the cutting list, weld settings and the order that keeps it flat.
Pedestrian gate A 1000 × 1800 gate leaf in 40×20×2 tube: about 19 kg, 10 joints. Enter your size for the cutting list, then weld it square on a table and hang it on wedges.
Carport and canopy A 6 × 3.5 m carport in 60×60×3 tube: 6 posts, 7 rafters, about 376 kg of frame. Enter your size for the cutting list, then follow the build steps and weld settings.
Door canopy A 1400 × 900 door canopy in 40×20×2 tube: three brackets, about 19 kg of steel. Enter your size for the cutting list, then build the brackets on one template.
Fence 20 m of 2 m fence: nine 60×60×3 posts, sixteen 40×20×2 rails, about 209 kg of steel. Enter your run for the cutting list, set-out steps and weld settings.
Steel stairs Enter the rise and the going: the calculator gives the number of steps, the actual riser, the stringer length and the whole cutting list.

Welding equipment

Choosing a welding machine A 16 A socket supports about 120 A of stick welding; 250 A needs three-phase. Compare machines at 100 % duty cycle, check I₁max, PFC and the leads.
Welding helmet How auto-darkening helmets work, what the four EN 379 numbers mean, and which shade to set for each process and current.
MIG/MAG torch consumables What 250 A at 60 % means, why a torch runs hotter in M21, M6 vs M8 tips, CuCrZr, nozzle choice and liner care — with a worked sizing example.
Servicing and typical faults Earth clamp, contact tip, drive rolls, liner, dust: what to check yourself in half an hour. Fault table, service schedule, EN IEC 60974-4 test.

Weld defects and inspection

Quality levels ISO 5817 ISO 5817 (EN ISO 5817, DIN EN ISO 5817) in practice: B stringent, C intermediate, D moderate, the limit for each imperfection, and what no level allows.
Undercut Why the toe of the weld gets eaten away, what ISO 5817 allows at each quality level, and which change in technique fixes it.
Lack of fusion Lack of fusion (401): weld not fused to the side wall or previous pass. Lack of penetration (402): root not melted through. X-ray, UT, bend test, causes, ISO 5817.
Lack of penetration Incomplete (lack of root) penetration: gap and root face by process, the keyhole, six shop cases, nine causes with the sign of each, repair and ISO 5817 limits.
Weld cracks How hot and cold cracks differ, why hydrogen and restraint cause them, and what preheat and post-weld heat treatment prevent.
Knowledge test: defects and symbols Self-check questions: imperfection numbers to ISO 6520-1, their causes, ISO 5817 quality levels and the parts of a welding symbol. Checked in your browser.
Weld defect catalogue Holes, grooves, cracks, unfused edges: match the symptom to its ISO 6520-1 number, cause and fix. Six defect groups, which test finds each, and which are never allowed.
Porosity in welds Even pores mean shielding, clusters mean dirt, a line in the root means fit-up or preparation. MAG flow 10–16 l/min, ISO 5817 pore limits and a bench checklist.

Drawings and symbols

How to read welding symbols The arrow, the reference line, the symbol and the dimensions: reading an ISO 2553 weld symbol without guessing what it means.
Welding symbol builder Build an ISO 2553 or AWS A2.4 weld symbol from joint type, side and dimensions and see how it looks on the drawing, with every element explained.
ISO 2553 vs AWS A2.4 AWS: below the line is the arrow side, 1/4" is a 6.4 mm leg (throat 4.5) and 50-150 is a centre-to-centre pitch. Inch-to-mm table and a worked AWS-to-ISO conversion.
GOST 2.312 vs ISO 2553 How the Soviet and European symbol systems differ, and how to read an old drawing without misreading the weld it asks for.

Standards and qualification

WPS — procedure specification A welding procedure specification (WPS) to EN ISO 15609-1 read field by field on a real example (135, S355, 10 mm): who signs it, why it has no expiry date and what an audit finds.
pWPS — preliminary WPS A pWPS is the draft of a WPS, written before the procedure test: where its numbers come from, who signs it, how it becomes a WPS and why production must not be welded to it.
WPQR — procedure qualification WPQR is the Welding Procedure Qualification Record, the report of a test coupon: tests, range it covers (thickness, position, heat input) and how long it is valid.
Knowledge test: documents and standards Questions on the welding documents (pWPS, WPQR, WPS), ISO 6947 positions, current and process numbers. Checked in your browser, with a link to the page that answers each one.
Test to EN ISO 9606 ISO 9606-1 tests the welder, not the weld: a 10 mm plate covers 3–20 mm, the certificate lasts 3 years with a sign-off every 6 months. Test day, code, EN 287-1.
Qualifications in Poland EN ISO 9606 certificate, UDT exam or welder's book? What a welder needs to work in Poland, who issues each document, how long it takes, how foreign papers count.
ISO 10042 quality levels for aluminium How ISO 10042 differs from ISO 5817: a surface pore is allowed at B (max 1 mm), continuous undercut is not, excess weld metal is capped at 6/8/10 mm. Table and example.

Welding safety

Personal protective equipment Helmet EN ISO 16321-2 and shade by current, EN 12477 type A/B gloves, EN ISO 11611 class 1/2 clothing, WG boots: PPE for MMA, MIG/MAG, TIG, cutting, overhead.
Welding fume and ventilation How much fume MAG, TIG and flux-cored welding make (mg/s, grams per shift), the exposure limits, how close the fume extractor must be and how to ventilate a shop.
Gloves and clothing Class 2 means 25 drops instead of 15 and 16 s instead of 7: EN ISO 11611 classes and A1/A2, how 11612 differs, EN 12477 A/B gloves, washing and retirement.
Respiratory protection Which respiratory PPE a welder needs: FFP2 or FFP3, when a powered hood (PAPR) is required, protection factors, filter changes and the common fit mistakes.
Stainless fume: chromium VI Why stainless fume is carcinogenic, which process produces the most of it, and what limit for chromium VI applies across the European Union.
Hot work and fire safety Clear 10 m around the work, keep a fire watch for at least an hour afterwards (OSHA: 30 min), and what a hot work permit must cover in Poland, Germany and the USA.
Electrical safety in welding Open-circuit voltage of 50–90 V, the 113 V DC and 48 V AC limits for S-marked work, why a 30 mA RCD will not stop a shock from the holder, and VRD.

How to weld

Welding thin sheet 1 mm sheet: 0.6–0.8 mm wire at 45–65 A and 16–17 V; 2 mm: 90–110 A. MIG, TIG and stick settings, stitch welding, copper backing and tack order against burn-through.
Pipe welding positions How to weld a fixed-pipe root from 6 to 12 o’clock, current for 5G and 6G, what PH, H-L045 and J-L045 mean, and which positions and diameters a pipe test covers.
Horizontal welding A horizontal butt step by step: electrode 5–15° up, current 10 % below flat, half-V prep, stringers from the bottom up, and how to stop undercut on the top edge.
Fillet weld PB The commonest shop position: electrode at 45° tilted towards the vertical leg, current 5 % below flat, a leg up to 8 mm in one run. Where overlap and undercut come from.
Flat position PA The base every position is measured from: current at the top of the range, a 10–12 mm leg per run in the boat, twice the output. A test in PA covers PA only.
Overhead fillet PD The T-joint above your head: current 20 % lower, a basic electrode, up to 6 mm per run. Where the sagging bead comes from, and why PD covers PA, PB, PC, PD and PE.
Overhead welding How to weld above your head without the pool dripping: current 20 % lower, narrow beads, basic electrodes, neck protection and position PE to EN ISO 6947.
Welding vertical down When a vertical-down weld is allowed and when it is not: more current than uphill, electrode angle, cellulosic electrodes, overlap defects and position PG to EN ISO 6947.
Welding a vertical weld Vertical-up current is 15 % below flat: 95–120 A for a 3.2 mm rod on 6–8 mm plate. Electrode angle, weave, MIG short arc, PF vs PG. Downhill is a separate guide.
Welding square tube MIG with 0.8 mm wire: 2 mm wall 90–110 A, 3 mm 120–140 A; stick 70–90 and 90–120 A. Tack diagonally, weld opposite faces, thin tube to a post, galvanised tube.
Repair welding Crack repair: ends found by PT/MT, 3–4 mm stop holes, excavating to sound metal, calculator preheat, bead sequence, inspection after 24–48 h. Steel, cast iron, aluminium.

Troubleshooting

The electrode keeps sticking Usually too little current or too short an arc: add 10–15 A and hold a gap of about one electrode diameter. Seven causes by likelihood, a check order, how to free a stuck rod.
Wire feeding problems Jerky feed, birdnesting, wire burnt onto the tip: diagnosis by symptom, a 10-second feed speed check, V/U/knurled rolls, liner and tip sizing.
The welder trips the breaker A 2.5 mm rod pulls about 11 A from a 230 V socket, a 4.0 mm rod about 23 A. Tell the cause by when it trips and see when a type C breaker is enough.
Welder not welding — no arc Step-by-step checks: supply and extension lead, earth clamp, cables, polarity, damp electrodes, inverter overheating, wire feed and gas on MIG, tungsten and arc start on TIG.

Reference tables

Steel grade equivalents ASTM A569 equivalent: A1011 CS, EN DD11 (1.0332). S355J2 ≈ A572 Gr. 50, 1.4301 = AISI 304. EN, AISI/ASTM, GOST and PN side by side, with substitution rules.
Current vs electrode diameter Flat position: 2.5 mm — 70–100 A, 3.2 mm — 90–140 A, 4 mm — 130–190 A. Amps for 1.6 to 6 mm electrodes by plate thickness, position and coating; printable.
MIG/MAG settings chart 5–6 mm plate, MAG: 1.0–1.2 mm wire, 160–220 A, 22–25 V. MIG chart from 0.8 to 12 mm: wire, amps, volts, wire feed speed and gas, plus thin sheet and box section.
TIG amperage chart 3 mm steel: 90–130 A DC−, 2.0–2.4 mm tungsten, 7–9 l/min argon. TIG chart 0.5–8 mm for steel and stainless, AC amps by tungsten size for aluminium, cup sizes.
Tungsten electrode colour codes Green WP for aluminium on AC, blue WL-20 and grey WC-20 for steel and stainless, red WT-20 thoriated. Current by diameter: 1.6 mm carries 70–150 A DC−.
Welding process numbers 135 = MAG with solid wire, 136 = flux-cored, 141 = TIG, 111 = MMA: the wire, gas and use behind each number, how 135, 136 and 138 differ, and the full ISO 4063 table.
Electrode and wire designations E7018: 490 MPa, all positions, basic low-hydrogen covering. E 42 3 B 32 H5: 420 MPa yield, 47 J at −30 °C. Every digit decoded, with EN ISO 2560 and AWS A5.1 tables.
Weld imperfection numbers 401 is lack of fusion, 5011 continuous undercut, 2011 an isolated pore: the full ISO 6520-1 table of weld imperfection numbers in six groups, and how to read any number.
Steel section weights IPE 200 — 22.4 kg/m, HEB 200 — 61.3 kg/m, UPN 100 — 10.6 kg/m. Weight per meter and per 6 m and 12 m bar for every IPE, HEA, HEB, UPN, UPE and angle.
Sheet metal gauge chart Gauge to mm and inches for steel, galvanized, stainless and aluminium sheet, 3 to 30 gauge: 16 gauge steel is 0.0598 in (1.52 mm), 16 gauge aluminium only 1.29 mm.
Stick welding amperage chart Amps for E6010, E6011, E6013, E7014, E7018 and E7024 stick electrodes, 3/32 to 1/4 in, from Lincoln, ESAB and Hobart data sheets: a 1/8 in 7018 runs at 90–160 A.
W beam weight chart All 289 W shapes plus S, HP and M beams: weight per foot and per metre, depth, flange width, web and flange thickness. W8×31 is 31 lb/ft (46.1 kg/m).
C channel and angle weight chart American Standard C and MC channels and steel angles with weight per foot and per metre: C8×11.5 is 11.5 lb/ft (17.1 kg/m), a 2×2×1/4 angle is 3.19 lb/ft.
HSS weight chart All 525 square and rectangular HSS sizes with weight per foot and per metre and nominal wall: HSS 4×4×1/4 weighs 12.21 lb/ft (18.2 kg/m), 6×6×3/8 weighs 27.48 lb/ft.
Steel pipe weight chart Standard, XS and XXS steel pipe from 1/2 to 26 in and round HSS with weight per foot and per metre, OD and wall: 4 in schedule 40 pipe weighs 10.8 lb/ft (16.1 kg/m).
S235–S460 steel properties S355 up to 16 mm: yield 355 MPa, tensile 470–630; S235: 235 MPa and 360–510. EN 10025-2 tables by thickness, JR–K2 impact, CEV limits and stainless 1.4301, 1.4404.
Electrode drying Low-hydrogen rods are rebaked at 300–400 °C for 1–2 h (OK 48.00: 350 °C, 2 h; Lincoln E7018: 340–400 °C, 1 h), at most 3 times. Rutile rarely, cellulosic never.
Pipe schedule chart 2″ Sch 40 pipe: OD 60.3 mm, wall 3.91 mm, 5.44 kg/m. NPS 1/8–24 (DN 6–600) with Sch 10, 40, 80, 160, XXS and STD/XS to ASME B36.10M, plus 5S–80S stainless.
Metal density chart Steel 7850 kg/m³ (7.85 g/cm³, 0.284 lb/in³), stainless 304 7900, 316 8000, aluminium 2700, copper 8960, brass 8500. Grades, kN/m³ and 1 mm sheet weight.
18G2A steel 18G2A (PN-86/H-84018) is closest to S355J2, 1.0577. Composition and Rm from mill cards, CEV max 0.48, ISO/TR 15608 group 1.2, preheat from CET, electrodes and wire.
0H18N9 stainless steel 0H18N9 (PN-71/H-86020) is closest to 1.4301, X5CrNi18-10, AISI 304. Composition of both, Rp0.2 and Rm to EN 10088-2, group 8.1, 308L filler, no preheat.
16HG steel 16HG is a Polish case-hardening steel, today 16MnCr5 (1.7131) to EN 10084 and ISO 683-3. Composition, CE and CET from its limits, preheat, low-hydrogen filler.
12Kh18N10T stainless steel GOST 12Х18Н10Т (12Kh18N10T) is closest to 1.4541, X6CrNiTi18-10 and AISI 321. Composition to GOST and EN, sheet properties, group 8.1, 347 filler, how to weld.
ASTM A1011 CS and A569 A569 was withdrawn in 2000 and replaced by A1011; commercial steel is now A1011 CS Type B, near EN DD11. Chemistry limits, CE, why no preheat, wire and rods.
10CrMo9-10 steel 10CrMo9-10 (1.7380, ASTM P22): composition to EN 10216-2, preheat above 10 mm, interpass range, E CrMo2 B electrode and post-weld heat treatment from datasheets.

Training and work

What welders earn Welder salary in Europe, gross median: Germany €3,843 a month, Norway NOK 50,500, Poland 7,290 zł, UK £35,344 a year. Why coded TIG on pipe pays about twice plate MAG.
Welder salary in Warsaw Median 7,290 zł gross ≈ €1,660 (NBP rate 23.10.2026), net ≈ €1,210. Warsaw job ads 6,000–14,000 zł ≈ €1,370–3,190. Hourly rates, contracts, B2B, rent.
Welding course: cost and length A basic MAG course takes 3–4 weeks, 120–160 hours and costs 2,200–3,200 zł (Poland, 2026); TIG 3,000–4,500 zł. Table per process, what the price covers, the certificate.
How to become a welder Course, EN ISO 9606-1 test, first job: MAG course 3–4 weeks and 2,200–3,200 zł, the test alone 600–1,500 zł. Which process to learn first and what the test involves.
Work for foreign welders A non-EU welding certificate is usually not accepted: re-sit EN ISO 9606-1 in a day, no course. Pay in Poland (median 7,290 zł gross), agency checks, contract, WPS language.
Welding work in the EU Where welders are short: energy, shipyards, pipe, rail. Which certificate travels, VCA, SCC and GWO safety tickets, posting rules (A1, 12/18/24 months), checking an offer.

Glossary

Welding glossary Welding terms side by side in ten languages with the EN ISO designation — for reading a WPS or a certificate issued abroad.

Author: Dmitry Frolov, welder and metal fabricator Updated: 14 August 2026

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