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Ask directly: “electrode 3.2 overhead”, “a5”, “IPE 200 6 m”, “E7018”, “135”, “S355”, “DIN 150 A”.

Calculators

Welding current by electrode diameter How many amps for a 2.5, 3.2 or 4 mm stick electrode: the calculator corrects for position and covering, with a ready current table next to it.
Electrode consumption How many 2.5, 3.2 and 4 mm electrodes fit in a kilo and how many go into a metre of weld: the calculator gives pieces, kilos and stub loss.
Cost per metre of weld What a metre of weld actually costs: deposited metal, wire and gas consumption, electricity, labour hours and the shop rate.
Preheat temperature Whether to preheat and to what temperature: method B of EN 1011-2 with CET, plate thickness, hydrogen scale and heat input.
Acceptance limits ISO 5817 Limits for undercut, porosity, excess weld metal and misalignment at quality levels B, C and D for a given wall thickness.
pWPS generator Pick the process, material group and thickness — the generator drafts the pWPS to ISO 15609-1: edge preparation, filler, gas, current and thermal regime. Download and complete it.
VT report Give the quality level, weld type and thickness — the generator builds the VT report: test conditions to ISO 17637 and the acceptance table to ISO 5817.
Weld schedule Enter the welds of the item: type, size, length and quantity. The calculator gives the ISO 2553 designation, the section, the deposited metal and the filler, time and gas.
Bill of materials List the catalogue sections and the items by dimensions: the calculator gives the mass of each, the total with a cutting allowance and the cost of the steel.
Cutting plan Give the part lengths and quantities: the calculator lays them out on stock bars and returns the number of bars, the real offcut in millimetres and per cent, and a cutting card.
WPQR range of qualification Enter the test piece data and the calculator returns the level 2 range of qualification to EN ISO 15614-1: thickness, diameter, positions, heat input, preheat and interpass.
Qualification range EN ISO 9606 Enter thickness, pipe diameter and position: 10 mm plate covers 3–20 mm, 60.3 pipe from 30.2 mm, PF covers PA, PB and PF, H-L045 all. Plus the six-monthly signature date.
Wire feed speed Wire feed speed from the current, or current from the feed speed, for solid wire of 0.8 to 1.6 mm, with the deposition rate per hour.
Duty cycle and fuse size How long the machine may weld before it trips on thermal overload, and what supply fuse or breaker its input current really needs.
Tungsten electrode selection Which tungsten to use and at what diameter: current range by type and polarity, the colour code and the tip grind angle for the job.
Shielding gas selection M21 = Ar + 15–25 % CO₂ for steel, M12 for stainless, pure argon I1 for aluminium and TIG. Gives the mix, the EN ISO 14175 code and the flow in l/min.
Fillet weld: throat and leg Converting throat thickness a into leg length z and back, with the deposited area and the mass of filler metal per metre of fillet.
Welding unit converter 35 cfh = 16.5 l/min, 300 ipm = 7.6 m/min, 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa: convert AWS and ASME data-sheet units, with worked examples and traps.
Shielding gas consumption 40 l at 200 bar = 8,000 l of gas, about 11 h of arc at 12 l/min. Gas per shift, what is left from the gauge, CO₂ by weight, CFH to l/min.
Steel weight calculator Mass of rolled metal by size: sheet, round and square bar, tube, angle and channel, for carbon steel, stainless and aluminium.
Steel beam weight IPE 200 — 22.4 kg/m, IPE 300 — 42.2, HEB 200 — 61.3, HEA 300 — 88.3. Full EN 10365 and DIN 1025-1 tables and a calculator for length and quantity.
Steel channel weight UPN 100 — 10.6 kg/m, UPN 120 — 13.4, UPN 160 — 18.8, UPN 200 — 25.3. Weight of 6 m and 12 m bars and of a whole order, and UPN vs UPE explained.
Steel angle weight L 50×50×5 — 3.77 kg/m, L 100×100×10 — 15.0. Every size to EN 10056-1 with 6 m and 12 m bar weights and a calculator for length and quantity.
Tube and hollow section Weight of round tube and hollow section from dimensions: diameter or sides plus wall thickness. Common commercial sizes to EN 10219 and the area formulas.
Sheet metal weight Steel 1 mm = 7.85 kg/m², 2 mm — 15.7, 5 mm — 39.25. Weight of a 1250×2500 or 1500×3000 sheet and of a whole batch, with worked examples.
Aluminium weight Weight of aluminium products: density of alloys 1050, 5083, 6060 and 6082, the ratio to steel, and a sheet mass table for the usual thicknesses.
Aluminium sheet The weight of aluminium sheet from 1 to 10 mm thick: kilograms per square metre, cross-section and a calculator for any sheet size.
Aluminium box section The weight of aluminium box section: twelve common sizes from 15×15×2 to 80×80×4 with the mass per metre and a calculator for any section.
Aluminium tube The weight of round aluminium tube from 12×1 to 80×3: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any diameter and wall.
Aluminium angle The weight of aluminium angle from 15×15×2 to 80×80×6: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any leg and thickness.
Aluminium flat bar The weight of aluminium flat bar from 15×2 to 100×10: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any width and thickness.
Aluminium round bar The weight of aluminium round bar from 6 to 50 mm: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any diameter.
Carbon equivalent CE Carbon equivalent from the composition on the mill certificate: IIW CE and CET, and what they say about weldability and preheat.
Shade number DIN Which shade number to set on the helmet for MMA, MIG/MAG, TIG or cutting at a given current, following EN 169 and EN 379.
Heat input Heat input from current, voltage and travel speed, with the k factor for each process (ISO/TR 18491, EN 1011-1), limits in a WPS and step-by-step examples.
Cooling time t8/5 10 mm plate at 1.2 kJ/mm cools 800→500 °C in 14.7 s, 20 mm in 5.7 s. EN 1011-2 2D/3D formulas, a t8/5 table by heat input and the 5–25 s window.
Hardness: HV, HB, HRC Convert HV, HB and HRC both ways: 300 HV = 285 HB = 29.8 HRC, 700 HV = 60.1 HRC. Full ISO 18265 table, tensile strength, worked examples and the 380 HV10 HAZ limit.
Deposited metal and passes Work out the groove cross-section, the deposit per metre, the consumable with losses, the number of passes and the arc time for V, X, square-edge and fillet welds.
Groove preparation Give the thickness, the process and the access to the joint; the calculator proposes the preparation type, angle, root gap and root face from the usual ISO 9692-1 tables.
Chromium and nickel equivalents Enter both parent metals and the filler: get Cr-eq and Ni-eq, the weld point on the Schaeffler diagram and the risk zone — cracks, martensite, sigma. 309L example.
Wire length on a spool A 15 kg spool of 1.0 mm wire is about 2,430 m, 5 kg about 810 m; 0.8 mm gives 3,800 and 1,270 m. Length from mass and diameter, arc minutes, what is left.
Cable voltage drop 200 A over 20 m loses 5.6 V on 25 mm² copper and 2.8 V on 50 mm². Volts lost, share of arc voltage and cable heat, with worked examples.
Generator for a welder A 200 A stick inverter needs about 9 kVA with PFC and 12.5 kVA without. Size from I₁max on the plate, compare kVA not kW, and switch eco mode off.
Welding cable size Which cable cross-section a given current and cable length need, and how much voltage a long run costs you at the arc.
Project calculators Six calculators that work out a whole project rather than a single figure: cutting list, mass of steel, length of welds and current. Bench, gate, carport, canopy, fence, stairs.

Welding processes

MMA — stick welding How MMA stick welding works and how to do it: striking the arc, arc length about one electrode diameter, angle, weave, current by electrode size and faults seen in the bead.
MIG/MAG welding MIG 131 or MAG 135: same machine, different gas. Short-circuit at 16–22 V, spray from 26–28 V, pulsed; wire, voltage and gas by plate thickness, torch angle, faults.
Flux-cored welding 136 Gas-shielded 136 or self-shielded 114: polarity, 15–25 mm stickout, drag technique, vertical-up with rutile slag, reading E71T-1 and T 46 4 P M21, defects, wire storage.
135 vs 136 vs 138 How processes 135, 136 and 138 differ: gas, slag, positions, wind, how the WPS writes them. Which ISO 9606-1 certificate covers which number, and where 114 and 131–133 fit.
Gas welding 311 Tip size by thickness and gas use (2 mm sheet: 155 l/h of acetylene), pressures 2.5 and 0.2–0.5 bar, the neutral flame, filler d = s/2 + 1, flashback.
TIG welding TIG step by step: amperage by thickness (3 mm — 90–130 A), tungsten choice and grinding, argon 5–12 l/min, AC for aluminium, DC− for steel, common mistakes.

Welding parameters

Joint preparation I, V, X, U and K preparations: the angle, root face and gap for each thickness, how the edge is cut and cleaned, and what too narrow a groove costs.
The weld pool Weld pool meaning in one line: the metal molten under the arc right now. Its width, shine and edges tell you whether current, speed and angle are right, and what to change.
Welding positions PA flat, PB/PC horizontal, PD/PE overhead, PF up, PG down: ISO 6947 chart with 1G–6G equivalents, current −15 % for vertical and −20 % overhead, what a test covers.

Filler metals and gases

Electrode catalogue OK 48.00, Basic 7018, FOX EV 50, OK 46.00 side by side: coating, AC or DC+, EN ISO and AWS class, diameters, baking. Find a substitute.
Electrode coating types How rutile, basic, cellulosic and acid coatings differ in arc behaviour, hydrogen level and position — and what each one is for.

Materials and weldability

Steel weldability What weldability means, steel groups to ISO/TR 15608, carbon equivalent CE and CET, when to preheat, why hardenable, stainless, cast iron and galvanised steel are harder.
Welding stainless steel Which electrode and wire for 304 and 316L (E 19 9 L, E 19 12 3 L), Ar + 2 % CO₂, heat input worked out for TIG and MAG, sensitisation, pickling heat tint, duplex.
Welding aluminium AC balance, argon and Ar-He from 6 mm, why MIG needs push-pull, filler by alloy series (5xxx, 6xxx, castings) and a worked 6082 frame example.
Welding cast iron Why cast iron cracks when welded, when to preheat and when to weld cold, and which electrodes actually hold a repair together.
Welding dissimilar steels Why 309L and not 308L: a worked Schaeffler example at 30, 50 and 70 % dilution, arc placement, MIG wire and electrode codes, preheat by the carbon steel side, typical cracks.

Products and structures

Carports What a carport is made of: the posts, how they meet the ground, the truss, the roof shape and the reinforcements — six options for each joint.
Gates and wickets A sliding gate in section, six types of gate, posts and foundations, what closes the leaf, and sizing the operator by the weight it has to move.
Fences A whole fence bay with its foundation in section, six kinds of infill, and six ways of setting a post in ground that freezes and heaves.
Stairs and railings A flight in section with the step dimensions, six types of staircase, six fixing details, and six ways of closing the gap in a railing.
Door canopies A 1.2×1.5 m canopy is about 34 kg of steel but carries 160 kg of snow. Which tubes, which anchors for each wall, the bracket weld and mistakes to avoid.
Garages and sheds The frame of a garage taken apart, six types from profiled sheet to sandwich panel, and why steel sweats inside without vents under the eaves.
Halls and frames A hangar frame in section with its purlins and bracing, six ways of covering a span, and what happens when bracing is struck off the quotation.
Platforms and walkways How an access platform is built, six kinds of platform, what closes the gap between beams, guardrails to the standard and industrial stairs.
Frames and jigs How a pump bedplate is built, six jobs on frames and jigs and six versions of a machine guard — what decides alignment and access.
Storage and handling How a pallet racking bay is built, six ways of storing and six things on the move — trolleys, stillages, pallets and ramps; what the forklift dictates.
Grilles, doors and hatches A window grille and a hinged one, a boiler room door, a floor hatch, a light-well grating and an air conditioner cage — how each one is built.
Yard and garden How a gazebo is built and how it differs from a carport, six greenhouse frames, garden furniture and yard oddments — from a swing to a bin shelter.
Barbecues and stoves How a firebox is built and why the wall thickness decides it, six kinds of barbecue and six layouts of a set, the flue and the draught.
Furniture and interior How a table on a steel frame is built, six frame joints, six kinds of top, and what else gets welded for an interior: shelving, racks, coat stands.
Brackets and fixings How a bracket for an outdoor unit is built, six common brackets and six household oddments — why overturning is what gets calculated, not weight.
Stainless equipment How a work table is built, six stainless items and six details the job is accepted on: the corner radius, the weld, the gap under the foot.
Tanks and pipework How a rectangular tank is built, six jobs on vessels, six kinds of pipework joint and six ventilation parts — what gets welded and what gets bought.
Repairs and rebuilding Six repair techniques and the work that comes with machinery: a stop-drilled crack, an insert, hardfacing a worn surface, cast iron and aluminium.
How ordering works What the price is made of, how the order runs week by week, how to choose a coating and the fixings, and what insulation actually buys you.

Build it yourself

Workbench A 1500 × 700 × 850 bench in 40×40×2: 12.3 m of tube, 29 kg frame, 33 kg top. Enter your size for the cutting list, weld settings and the order that keeps it flat.
Pedestrian gate A 1000 × 1800 gate leaf in 40×20×2 tube: about 19 kg, 10 joints. Enter your size for the cutting list, then weld it square on a table and hang it on wedges.
Carport and canopy A 6 × 3.5 m carport in 60×60×3 tube: 6 posts, 7 rafters, about 366 kg of frame. Enter your size for the cutting list, then follow the build steps and weld settings.
Door canopy A 1400 × 900 door canopy in 40×20×2 tube: three brackets, about 19 kg of steel. Enter your size for the cutting list, then build the brackets on one template.
Fence 20 m of 2 m fence: nine 60×60×3 posts, sixteen 40×20×2 rails, about 209 kg of steel. Enter your run for the cutting list, set-out steps and weld settings.
Steel stairs Enter the rise and the going: the calculator gives the number of steps, the actual riser, the stringer length and the whole cutting list.

Welding equipment

Choosing a welding machine A 16 A socket supports about 120 A of stick welding; 250 A needs three-phase. Compare machines at 100 % duty cycle, check I₁max, PFC and the leads.
Welding helmet How auto-darkening helmets work, what the four EN 379 numbers mean, and which shade to set for each process and current.
MIG/MAG torch consumables What 250 A at 60 % means, why a torch runs hotter in M21, M6 vs M8 tips, CuCrZr, nozzle choice and liner care — with a worked sizing example.
Servicing and typical faults Earth clamp, contact tip, drive rolls, liner, dust: what to check yourself in half an hour. Fault table, service schedule, EN IEC 60974-4 test.

Weld defects and inspection

Quality levels ISO 5817 B stringent, C intermediate, D moderate: the ISO 5817 limits for each imperfection, which EN 1090-2 class sets the level, and what no level allows.
Undercut Why the toe of the weld gets eaten away, what ISO 5817 allows at each quality level, and which change in technique fixes it.
Lack of fusion Lack of fusion (401) vs lack of penetration (402): how each shows on a macro, X-ray, UT and bend test, nine causes with the fix, repair steps and ISO 5817 limits.
Lack of penetration Incomplete (lack of root) penetration: gap and root face by process, the keyhole, six shop cases, nine causes with the sign of each, repair and ISO 5817 limits.
Weld cracks How hot and cold cracks differ, why hydrogen and restraint cause them, and what preheat and post-weld heat treatment prevent.
Knowledge test: defects and symbols Self-check questions: imperfection numbers to ISO 6520-1, their causes, ISO 5817 quality levels and the parts of a welding symbol. Checked in your browser.
Weld defect catalogue Holes, grooves, cracks, unfused edges: match the symptom to its ISO 6520-1 number, cause and fix. Six defect groups, which test finds each, and which are never allowed.
Porosity in welds Even pores mean shielding, clusters mean dirt, a line in the root means no purge. MAG flow 10–16 l/min, ISO 5817 pore limits and a bench checklist.

Drawings and symbols

How to read welding symbols The arrow, the reference line, the symbol and the dimensions: reading an ISO 2553 weld symbol without guessing what it means.
Welding symbol builder Assemble a weld symbol from the joint type and its dimensions and see exactly how it should look on the drawing.
ISO 2553 vs AWS A2.4 AWS: below the line is the arrow side, 1/4" is a 6.4 mm leg (throat 4.5) and 50-150 is a centre-to-centre pitch. Inch-to-mm table and a worked AWS-to-ISO conversion.
GOST 2.312 vs ISO 2553 How the Soviet and European symbol systems differ, and how to read an old drawing without misreading the weld it asks for.

Standards and qualification

WPS — procedure specification A WPS to EN ISO 15609-1 read field by field on a real example (135, S355, 10 mm), who signs it, why it has no expiry date and the audit findings that void it.
pWPS — preliminary WPS How a pWPS differs from a WPS, where its numbers come from, who signs it, and why production must not be welded to it.
WPQR — procedure qualification How a welding procedure is qualified: pWPS, test coupon, NDT and destructive tests, what the WPQR covers (thickness, position, heat input) and how long it is valid.
Knowledge test: documents and standards Questions on the welding documents (pWPS, WPQR, WPS), ISO 6947 positions, current and process numbers. Checked in your browser, with a link to the page that answers each one.
Test to EN ISO 9606 A 10 mm plate test covers 3–20 mm; the certificate lasts three years with a confirmation every six months. Test pieces, positions and examinations to ISO 9606-1.
Qualifications in Poland EN ISO 9606 certificate, UDT exam or welder's book? What a welder needs to work in Poland, who issues each document, how long it takes, how foreign papers count.
ISO 10042 quality levels for aluminium How ISO 10042 differs from ISO 5817: a surface pore is allowed at B (max 1 mm), continuous undercut is not, excess weld metal is capped at 6/8/10 mm. Table and example.

Welding safety

Personal protective equipment Helmet EN 175/379 and shade by current, EN 12477 type A/B gloves, EN ISO 11611 class 1/2 clothing, WG boots: PPE for MMA, MIG/MAG, TIG, cutting, overhead.
Welding fume and ventilation How much fume MAG, TIG and flux-cored welding make (mg/s, grams per shift), the exposure limits, how close the fume extractor must be and how to ventilate a shop.
Gloves and clothing Class 2 means 25 drops instead of 15 and 16 s instead of 7: EN ISO 11611 classes and A1/A2, how 11612 differs, EN 12477 A/B gloves, washing and retirement.
Respiratory protection Which respiratory PPE a welder needs: FFP2 or FFP3, when a powered hood (PAPR) is required, protection factors, filter changes and the common fit mistakes.
Stainless fume: chromium VI Why stainless fume is carcinogenic, which process produces the most of it, and what limit for chromium VI applies across the European Union.
Hot work and fire safety Why sparks start fires hours later, what a hot work permit covers, and how to leave a site with nothing left smouldering.
Electrical safety in welding Open-circuit voltage of 50–90 V, the 113 V DC and 48 V AC limits for S-marked work, why a 30 mA RCD will not stop a shock from the holder, and VRD.

How to weld

Welding thin sheet Settings and technique for 0.8 to 2 mm sheet: stitch welding, backing bars, torch angle, and why the fit-up gap ruins everything.
Pipe welding positions How to weld a fixed-pipe root from 6 to 12 o’clock, current for 5G and 6G, what PH, H-L045 and J-L045 mean, and which positions and diameters a pipe test covers.
Horizontal welding A horizontal butt step by step: electrode 5–15° up, current 10 % below flat, half-V prep, stringers from the bottom up, and how to stop undercut on the top edge.
Fillet weld PB The commonest shop position: electrode at 45° tilted towards the vertical leg, current 5 % below flat, a leg up to 8 mm in one run. Where overlap and undercut come from.
Flat position PA The base every position is measured from: current at the top of the range, a 10–12 mm leg per run in the boat, twice the output. A test in PA covers PA only.
Overhead fillet PD The T-joint above your head: current 20 % lower, a basic electrode, up to 6 mm per run. Where the sagging bead comes from, and why PD covers PA, PB, PD and PE.
Overhead welding How to weld above your head without the pool dripping: current 20 % lower, narrow beads, basic electrodes, neck protection and position PE to EN ISO 6947.
Welding vertical down When a vertical-down weld is allowed and when it is not: more current than uphill, electrode angle, cellulosic electrodes, overlap defects and position PG to EN ISO 6947.
Welding a vertical weld Current, electrode angle and travel technique on a vertical: when to run uphill, when downhill, how to stop the pool sagging and which weave to use.
Welding square tube MIG with 0.8 mm wire: 2 mm wall 90–110 A, 3 mm 120–140 A; stick 70–90 and 90–120 A. Tack diagonally, weld opposite faces, thin tube to a post, galvanised tube.

Troubleshooting

The electrode keeps sticking Seven reasons a stick electrode freezes on strike: too little current, damp covering, a poor earth clamp, wrong striking technique, and the cure for each.
Wire feeding problems Jerky feed, birdnesting, wire burnt onto the tip: diagnosis by symptom, a 10-second feed speed check, V/U/knurled rolls, liner and tip sizing.
The welder trips the breaker A 2.5 mm rod pulls about 11 A from a 230 V socket, a 4.0 mm rod about 23 A. Tell the cause by when it trips and see when a type C breaker is enough.
Welder not welding — no arc Step-by-step checks: supply and extension lead, earth clamp, cables, polarity, damp electrodes, inverter overheating, wire feed and gas on MIG, tungsten and arc start on TIG.

Reference tables

Steel grade equivalents S235JR = A283 Gr. C = Ст3сп, 1.4301 = AISI 304, 1.4404 = 316L. Cross-reference EN, AISI/ASTM, GOST and PN grades, with weldability notes and substitution rules.
Current vs electrode diameter Current ranges for 2.0 to 5.0 mm electrodes by position and coating type, in one printable table for the workshop wall.
MIG/MAG and TIG settings 5–6 mm plate, MAG: 1.0–1.2 mm wire, 160–220 A, 22–25 V. Chart from 0.8 to 12 mm: wire, amps, volts, wire feed speed and gas, plus TIG, thin sheet and box section.
Tungsten electrode colour codes Green WP for aluminium on AC, blue WL-20 and grey WC-20 for steel and stainless, red WT-20 thoriated. Current by diameter: 1.6 mm carries 70–150 A DC−.
Welding process numbers What 111, 131, 135, 136, 138, 141 and 311 mean on a WPS and a welder certificate, how 135, 136 and 138 differ, plus the full ISO 4063 table with abbreviations.
Electrode and wire designations E7018: 490 MPa, all positions, basic low-hydrogen covering. E 42 3 B 32 H5: 420 MPa yield, 47 J at −30 °C. Every digit decoded, with EN ISO 2560 and AWS A5.1 tables.
Weld imperfection numbers What 401, 5011 and 2011 mean on an inspection report: the full ISO 6520-1 table of weld imperfections in six groups, with the name behind every number.
Steel section weights Weight per metre for every IPE, HEA, HEB, UPN, UPE and angle size, plus 6 m and 12 m bar weights. UPN 200 — 25.3 kg/m, HEB 200 — 61.3 kg/m. Printable.

Training and work

What welders earn Why coded TIG on pipe pays about twice plate MAG, how Norway, Germany and Poland compare, and how to compare agency and direct rates net of costs.
Welder salary in Warsaw Median 7,290 zł gross (January 2026), GUS 7,384 zł, Warsaw job ads 6,000–14,000 zł. Take-home pay, hourly rates, UoP, zlecenie, B2B and what is left after rent.
Welding course: cost and length How long a course for each process takes, what it costs, what is included in the price and what the certificate you get is worth.
How to become a welder The route from zero to a qualified welder: which process to learn first, how long training takes, what the EN ISO 9606-1 test involves and how the certificate stays valid.
Work for foreign welders A non-EU welding certificate is not accepted: re-sit EN ISO 9606-1 in a day, no course. Pay in Poland (median 7,290 zł gross), agency checks, contract, WPS language.
Welding work in the EU Where welders are short: energy, shipyards, pipe, rail. Which certificate travels, VCA, SCC and GWO safety tickets, posting rules (A1, 12/18/24 months), checking an offer.

Glossary

Welding glossary Welding terms side by side in nine languages with the EN ISO designation — for reading a WPS or a certificate issued abroad.

Author: Dmitry Frolov, welder and metal fabricator Updated: 14 August 2026

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