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Calculators

• Welding current by electrode diameter How many amps for a 2.5, 3.2 or 4 mm stick electrode: the calculator corrects for position and covering, with a ready current table next to it.
• Electrode consumption How many 2.5, 3.2 and 4 mm electrodes fit in a kilo and how many go into a metre of weld: the calculator gives pieces, kilos and stub loss.
• Cost per metre of weld What a metre of weld actually costs: deposited metal, wire and gas consumption, electricity, labour hours and the shop rate.
• Preheat temperature Whether to preheat and to what temperature: method B of EN 1011-2 with CET, plate thickness, hydrogen scale and heat input.
• Acceptance limits ISO 5817 Limits for undercut, porosity, excess weld metal and misalignment at quality levels B, C and D for a given wall thickness.
• pWPS generator Pick the process, material group and thickness — the generator drafts the pWPS to ISO 15609-1: edge preparation, filler, gas, current and thermal regime. Download and complete it.
• VT report Give the quality level, weld type and thickness — the generator builds the VT report: test conditions to ISO 17637 and the acceptance table to ISO 5817.
• Weld schedule Enter the welds of the item: type, size, length and quantity. The calculator gives the ISO 2553 designation, the section, the deposited metal and the filler, time and gas.
• Bill of materials List the catalogue sections and the items by dimensions: the calculator gives the mass of each, the total with a cutting allowance and the cost of the steel.
• Cutting plan Give the part lengths and quantities: the calculator lays them out on stock bars and returns the number of bars, the real offcut in millimetres and per cent, and a cutting card.
• WPQR range of qualification Enter the test piece data and the calculator returns the level 2 range of qualification to EN ISO 15614-1: thickness, diameter, positions, heat input, preheat and interpass.
• Qualification range EN ISO 9606 Enter thickness, pipe diameter and position: 10 mm plate covers 3–20 mm, 60.3 pipe from 30.2 mm, PF covers PA, PB and PF, H-L045 all. Plus the six-monthly signature date.
• Wire feed speed Wire feed speed from the current, or current from the feed speed, for solid wire of 0.8 to 1.6 mm, with the deposition rate per hour.
• Duty cycle and fuse size How long the machine may weld before it trips on thermal overload, and what supply fuse or breaker its input current really needs.
• Tungsten electrode selection Which tungsten to use and at what diameter: current range by type and polarity, the colour code and the tip grind angle for the job.
• Shielding gas selection M21 = Ar + 15–25 % CO₂ for steel, M12 for stainless, pure argon I1 for aluminium and TIG. Gives the mix, the EN ISO 14175 code and the flow in l/min.
• Fillet weld: throat and leg Converting throat thickness a into leg length z and back, with the deposited area and the mass of filler metal per metre of fillet.
• Welding unit converter 35 cfh = 16.5 l/min, 300 ipm = 7.6 m/min, 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa: convert AWS and ASME data-sheet units, with worked examples and traps.
• Shielding gas consumption 40 l at 200 bar = 8,000 l of gas, about 11 h of arc at 12 l/min. Gas per shift, what is left from the gauge, CO₂ by weight, CFH to l/min.
• Steel weight calculator Mass of rolled metal by size: sheet, round and square bar, tube, angle and channel, for carbon steel, stainless and aluminium.
• Steel beam weight IPE 200 — 22.4 kg/m, IPE 300 — 42.2, HEB 200 — 61.3, HEA 300 — 88.3. Full EN 10365 and DIN 1025-1 tables and a calculator for length and quantity.
• Steel channel weight UPN 100 — 10.6 kg/m, UPN 120 — 13.4, UPN 160 — 18.8, UPN 200 — 25.3. Weight of 6 m and 12 m bars and of a whole order, and UPN vs UPE explained.
• Steel angle weight L 50×50×5 — 3.77 kg/m, L 100×100×10 — 15.0. Every size to EN 10056-1 with 6 m and 12 m bar weights and a calculator for length and quantity.
• Tube and hollow section Weight of round tube and hollow section from dimensions: diameter or sides plus wall thickness. Common commercial sizes to EN 10219 and the area formulas.
• Sheet metal weight Steel 1 mm = 7.85 kg/m², 2 mm — 15.7, 5 mm — 39.25. Weight of a 1250×2500 or 1500×3000 sheet and of a whole batch, with worked examples.
• Aluminium weight Weight of aluminium products: density of alloys 1050, 5083, 6060 and 6082, the ratio to steel, and a sheet mass table for the usual thicknesses.
• Aluminium sheet The weight of aluminium sheet from 1 to 10 mm thick: kilograms per square metre, cross-section and a calculator for any sheet size.
• Aluminium box section The weight of aluminium box section: twelve common sizes from 15×15×2 to 80×80×4 with the mass per metre and a calculator for any section.
• Aluminium tube The weight of round aluminium tube from 12×1 to 80×3: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any diameter and wall.
• Aluminium angle The weight of aluminium angle from 15×15×2 to 80×80×6: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any leg and thickness.
• Aluminium flat bar The weight of aluminium flat bar from 15×2 to 100×10: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any width and thickness.
• Aluminium round bar The weight of aluminium round bar from 6 to 50 mm: cross-section, kilograms per metre and a calculator for any diameter.
• Carbon equivalent CE Carbon equivalent from the composition on the mill certificate: IIW CE and CET, and what they say about weldability and preheat.
• Shade number DIN Which shade number to set on the helmet for MMA, MIG/MAG, TIG or cutting at a given current, following EN 169 and EN 379.
• Heat input Heat input from current, voltage and travel speed, with the k factor for each process (ISO/TR 18491, EN 1011-1), limits in a WPS and step-by-step examples.
• Cooling time t8/5 10 mm plate at 1.2 kJ/mm cools 800→500 °C in 14.7 s, 20 mm in 5.7 s. EN 1011-2 2D/3D formulas, a t8/5 table by heat input and the 5–25 s window.
• Hardness: HV, HB, HRC Convert HV, HB and HRC both ways: 300 HV = 285 HB = 29.8 HRC, 700 HV = 60.1 HRC. Full ISO 18265 table, tensile strength, worked examples and the 380 HV10 HAZ limit.
• Deposited metal and passes Work out the groove cross-section, the deposit per metre, the consumable with losses, the number of passes and the arc time for V, X, square-edge and fillet welds.
• Groove preparation Give the thickness, the process and the access to the joint; the calculator proposes the preparation type, angle, root gap and root face from the usual ISO 9692-1 tables.
• Chromium and nickel equivalents Enter both parent metals and the filler: get Cr-eq and Ni-eq, the weld point on the Schaeffler diagram and the risk zone — cracks, martensite, sigma. 309L example.
• Wire length on a spool A 15 kg spool of 1.0 mm wire is about 2,430 m, 5 kg about 810 m; 0.8 mm gives 3,800 and 1,270 m. Length from mass and diameter, arc minutes, what is left.
• Cable voltage drop 200 A over 20 m loses 5.6 V on 25 mm² copper and 2.8 V on 50 mm². Volts lost, share of arc voltage and cable heat, with worked examples.
• Generator for a welder A 200 A stick inverter needs about 9 kVA with PFC and 12.5 kVA without. Size from I₁max on the plate, compare kVA not kW, and switch eco mode off.
• Welding cable size Which cable cross-section a given current and cable length need, and how much voltage a long run costs you at the arc.
• Project calculators Six calculators that work out a whole project rather than a single figure: cutting list, mass of steel, length of welds and current. Bench, gate, carport, canopy, fence, stairs.

Welding processes

• MMA — stick welding How MMA stick welding works and how to do it: striking the arc, arc length about one electrode diameter, angle, weave, current by electrode size and faults seen in the bead.
• MIG/MAG welding MIG 131 or MAG 135: same machine, different gas. Short-circuit at 16–22 V, spray from 26–28 V, pulsed; wire, voltage and gas by plate thickness, torch angle, faults.
• Flux-cored welding 136 Gas-shielded 136 or self-shielded 114: polarity, 15–25 mm stickout, drag technique, vertical-up with rutile slag, reading E71T-1 and T 46 4 P M21, defects, wire storage.
• 135 vs 136 vs 138 How processes 135, 136 and 138 differ: gas, slag, positions, wind, how the WPS writes them. Which ISO 9606-1 certificate covers which number, and where 114 and 131–133 fit.
• Gas welding 311 Tip size by thickness and gas use (2 mm sheet: 155 l/h of acetylene), pressures 2.5 and 0.2–0.5 bar, the neutral flame, filler d = s/2 + 1, flashback.
• TIG welding TIG step by step: amperage by thickness (3 mm — 90–130 A), tungsten choice and grinding, argon 5–12 l/min, AC for aluminium, DC− for steel, common mistakes.

Welding parameters

• Joint preparation I, V, X, U and K preparations: the angle, root face and gap for each thickness, how the edge is cut and cleaned, and what too narrow a groove costs.
• The weld pool Weld pool meaning in one line: the metal molten under the arc right now. Its width, shine and edges tell you whether current, speed and angle are right, and what to change.
• Welding positions PA flat, PB/PC horizontal, PD/PE overhead, PF up, PG down: ISO 6947 chart with 1G–6G equivalents, current −15 % for vertical and −20 % overhead, what a test covers.

Filler metals and gases

• Electrode catalogue OK 48.00, Basic 7018, FOX EV 50, OK 46.00 side by side: coating, AC or DC+, EN ISO and AWS class, diameters, baking. Find a substitute.
• Electrode coating types How rutile, basic, cellulosic and acid coatings differ in arc behaviour, hydrogen level and position — and what each one is for.

Materials and weldability

• Steel weldability What weldability means, steel groups to ISO/TR 15608, carbon equivalent CE and CET, when to preheat, why hardenable, stainless, cast iron and galvanised steel are harder.
• Welding stainless steel Which electrode and wire for 304 and 316L (E 19 9 L, E 19 12 3 L), Ar + 2 % CO₂, heat input worked out for TIG and MAG, sensitisation, pickling heat tint, duplex.
• Welding aluminium AC balance, argon and Ar-He from 6 mm, why MIG needs push-pull, filler by alloy series (5xxx, 6xxx, castings) and a worked 6082 frame example.
• Welding cast iron Why cast iron cracks when welded, when to preheat and when to weld cold, and which electrodes actually hold a repair together.
• Welding dissimilar steels Why 309L and not 308L: a worked Schaeffler example at 30, 50 and 70 % dilution, arc placement, MIG wire and electrode codes, preheat by the carbon steel side, typical cracks.

Products and structures

• Carports What a carport is made of: the posts, how they meet the ground, the truss, the roof shape and the reinforcements — six options for each joint.
• Gates and wickets A sliding gate in section, six types of gate, posts and foundations, what closes the leaf, and sizing the operator by the weight it has to move.
• Fences A whole fence bay with its foundation in section, six kinds of infill, and six ways of setting a post in ground that freezes and heaves.
• Stairs and railings A flight in section with the step dimensions, six types of staircase, six fixing details, and six ways of closing the gap in a railing.
• Door canopies A 1.2×1.5 m canopy is about 34 kg of steel but carries 160 kg of snow. Which tubes, which anchors for each wall, the bracket weld and mistakes to avoid.
• Garages and sheds The frame of a garage taken apart, six types from profiled sheet to sandwich panel, and why steel sweats inside without vents under the eaves.
• Halls and frames A hangar frame in section with its purlins and bracing, six ways of covering a span, and what happens when bracing is struck off the quotation.
• Platforms and walkways How an access platform is built, six kinds of platform, what closes the gap between beams, guardrails to the standard and industrial stairs.
• Frames and jigs How a pump bedplate is built, six jobs on frames and jigs and six versions of a machine guard — what decides alignment and access.
• Storage and handling How a pallet racking bay is built, six ways of storing and six things on the move — trolleys, stillages, pallets and ramps; what the forklift dictates.
• Grilles, doors and hatches A window grille and a hinged one, a boiler room door, a floor hatch, a light-well grating and an air conditioner cage — how each one is built.
• Yard and garden How a gazebo is built and how it differs from a carport, six greenhouse frames, garden furniture and yard oddments — from a swing to a bin shelter.
• Barbecues and stoves How a firebox is built and why the wall thickness decides it, six kinds of barbecue and six layouts of a set, the flue and the draught.
• Furniture and interior How a table on a steel frame is built, six frame joints, six kinds of top, and what else gets welded for an interior: shelving, racks, coat stands.
• Brackets and fixings How a bracket for an outdoor unit is built, six common brackets and six household oddments — why overturning is what gets calculated, not weight.
• Stainless equipment How a work table is built, six stainless items and six details the job is accepted on: the corner radius, the weld, the gap under the foot.
• Tanks and pipework How a rectangular tank is built, six jobs on vessels, six kinds of pipework joint and six ventilation parts — what gets welded and what gets bought.
• Repairs and rebuilding Six repair techniques and the work that comes with machinery: a stop-drilled crack, an insert, hardfacing a worn surface, cast iron and aluminium.
• How ordering works What the price is made of, how the order runs week by week, how to choose a coating and the fixings, and what insulation actually buys you.

Build it yourself

• Workbench A 1500 × 700 × 850 bench in 40×40×2: 12.3 m of tube, 29 kg frame, 33 kg top. Enter your size for the cutting list, weld settings and the order that keeps it flat.
• Pedestrian gate A 1000 × 1800 gate leaf in 40×20×2 tube: about 19 kg, 10 joints. Enter your size for the cutting list, then weld it square on a table and hang it on wedges.
• Carport and canopy A 6 × 3.5 m carport in 60×60×3 tube: 6 posts, 7 rafters, about 366 kg of frame. Enter your size for the cutting list, then follow the build steps and weld settings.
• Door canopy A 1400 × 900 door canopy in 40×20×2 tube: three brackets, about 19 kg of steel. Enter your size for the cutting list, then build the brackets on one template.
• Fence 20 m of 2 m fence: nine 60×60×3 posts, sixteen 40×20×2 rails, about 209 kg of steel. Enter your run for the cutting list, set-out steps and weld settings.
• Steel stairs Enter the rise and the going: the calculator gives the number of steps, the actual riser, the stringer length and the whole cutting list.

Welding equipment

• Choosing a welding machine A 16 A socket supports about 120 A of stick welding; 250 A needs three-phase. Compare machines at 100 % duty cycle, check I₁max, PFC and the leads.
• Welding helmet How auto-darkening helmets work, what the four EN 379 numbers mean, and which shade to set for each process and current.
• MIG/MAG torch consumables What 250 A at 60 % means, why a torch runs hotter in M21, M6 vs M8 tips, CuCrZr, nozzle choice and liner care — with a worked sizing example.
• Servicing and typical faults Earth clamp, contact tip, drive rolls, liner, dust: what to check yourself in half an hour. Fault table, service schedule, EN IEC 60974-4 test.

Weld defects and inspection

• Quality levels ISO 5817 B stringent, C intermediate, D moderate: the ISO 5817 limits for each imperfection, which EN 1090-2 class sets the level, and what no level allows.
• Undercut Why the toe of the weld gets eaten away, what ISO 5817 allows at each quality level, and which change in technique fixes it.
• Lack of fusion Lack of fusion (401) vs lack of penetration (402): how each shows on a macro, X-ray, UT and bend test, nine causes with the fix, repair steps and ISO 5817 limits.
• Lack of penetration Incomplete (lack of root) penetration: gap and root face by process, the keyhole, six shop cases, nine causes with the sign of each, repair and ISO 5817 limits.
• Weld cracks How hot and cold cracks differ, why hydrogen and restraint cause them, and what preheat and post-weld heat treatment prevent.
• Knowledge test: defects and symbols Self-check questions: imperfection numbers to ISO 6520-1, their causes, ISO 5817 quality levels and the parts of a welding symbol. Checked in your browser.
• Weld defect catalogue Holes, grooves, cracks, unfused edges: match the symptom to its ISO 6520-1 number, cause and fix. Six defect groups, which test finds each, and which are never allowed.
• Porosity in welds Even pores mean shielding, clusters mean dirt, a line in the root means no purge. MAG flow 10–16 l/min, ISO 5817 pore limits and a bench checklist.

Drawings and symbols

• How to read welding symbols The arrow, the reference line, the symbol and the dimensions: reading an ISO 2553 weld symbol without guessing what it means.
• Welding symbol builder Assemble a weld symbol from the joint type and its dimensions and see exactly how it should look on the drawing.
• ISO 2553 vs AWS A2.4 AWS: below the line is the arrow side, 1/4" is a 6.4 mm leg (throat 4.5) and 50-150 is a centre-to-centre pitch. Inch-to-mm table and a worked AWS-to-ISO conversion.
• GOST 2.312 vs ISO 2553 How the Soviet and European symbol systems differ, and how to read an old drawing without misreading the weld it asks for.

Standards and qualification

• WPS — procedure specification A WPS to EN ISO 15609-1 read field by field on a real example (135, S355, 10 mm), who signs it, why it has no expiry date and the audit findings that void it.
• pWPS — preliminary WPS How a pWPS differs from a WPS, where its numbers come from, who signs it, and why production must not be welded to it.
• WPQR — procedure qualification How a welding procedure is qualified: pWPS, test coupon, NDT and destructive tests, what the WPQR covers (thickness, position, heat input) and how long it is valid.
• Knowledge test: documents and standards Questions on the welding documents (pWPS, WPQR, WPS), ISO 6947 positions, current and process numbers. Checked in your browser, with a link to the page that answers each one.
• Test to EN ISO 9606 A 10 mm plate test covers 3–20 mm; the certificate lasts three years with a confirmation every six months. Test pieces, positions and examinations to ISO 9606-1.
• Qualifications in Poland EN ISO 9606 certificate, UDT exam or welder's book? What a welder needs to work in Poland, who issues each document, how long it takes, how foreign papers count.
• ISO 10042 quality levels for aluminium How ISO 10042 differs from ISO 5817: a surface pore is allowed at B (max 1 mm), continuous undercut is not, excess weld metal is capped at 6/8/10 mm. Table and example.

Welding safety

• Personal protective equipment Helmet EN 175/379 and shade by current, EN 12477 type A/B gloves, EN ISO 11611 class 1/2 clothing, WG boots: PPE for MMA, MIG/MAG, TIG, cutting, overhead.
• Welding fume and ventilation How much fume MAG, TIG and flux-cored welding make (mg/s, grams per shift), the exposure limits, how close the fume extractor must be and how to ventilate a shop.
• Gloves and clothing Class 2 means 25 drops instead of 15 and 16 s instead of 7: EN ISO 11611 classes and A1/A2, how 11612 differs, EN 12477 A/B gloves, washing and retirement.
• Respiratory protection Which respiratory PPE a welder needs: FFP2 or FFP3, when a powered hood (PAPR) is required, protection factors, filter changes and the common fit mistakes.
• Stainless fume: chromium VI Why stainless fume is carcinogenic, which process produces the most of it, and what limit for chromium VI applies across the European Union.
• Hot work and fire safety Why sparks start fires hours later, what a hot work permit covers, and how to leave a site with nothing left smouldering.
• Electrical safety in welding Open-circuit voltage of 50–90 V, the 113 V DC and 48 V AC limits for S-marked work, why a 30 mA RCD will not stop a shock from the holder, and VRD.

How to weld

• Welding thin sheet Settings and technique for 0.8 to 2 mm sheet: stitch welding, backing bars, torch angle, and why the fit-up gap ruins everything.
• Pipe welding positions How to weld a fixed-pipe root from 6 to 12 o’clock, current for 5G and 6G, what PH, H-L045 and J-L045 mean, and which positions and diameters a pipe test covers.
• Horizontal welding A horizontal butt step by step: electrode 5–15° up, current 10 % below flat, half-V prep, stringers from the bottom up, and how to stop undercut on the top edge.
• Fillet weld PB The commonest shop position: electrode at 45° tilted towards the vertical leg, current 5 % below flat, a leg up to 8 mm in one run. Where overlap and undercut come from.
• Flat position PA The base every position is measured from: current at the top of the range, a 10–12 mm leg per run in the boat, twice the output. A test in PA covers PA only.
• Overhead fillet PD The T-joint above your head: current 20 % lower, a basic electrode, up to 6 mm per run. Where the sagging bead comes from, and why PD covers PA, PB, PD and PE.
• Overhead welding How to weld above your head without the pool dripping: current 20 % lower, narrow beads, basic electrodes, neck protection and position PE to EN ISO 6947.
• Welding vertical down When a vertical-down weld is allowed and when it is not: more current than uphill, electrode angle, cellulosic electrodes, overlap defects and position PG to EN ISO 6947.
• Welding a vertical weld Current, electrode angle and travel technique on a vertical: when to run uphill, when downhill, how to stop the pool sagging and which weave to use.
• Welding square tube MIG with 0.8 mm wire: 2 mm wall 90–110 A, 3 mm 120–140 A; stick 70–90 and 90–120 A. Tack diagonally, weld opposite faces, thin tube to a post, galvanised tube.

Troubleshooting

• The electrode keeps sticking Seven reasons a stick electrode freezes on strike: too little current, damp covering, a poor earth clamp, wrong striking technique, and the cure for each.
• Wire feeding problems Jerky feed, birdnesting, wire burnt onto the tip: diagnosis by symptom, a 10-second feed speed check, V/U/knurled rolls, liner and tip sizing.
• The welder trips the breaker A 2.5 mm rod pulls about 11 A from a 230 V socket, a 4.0 mm rod about 23 A. Tell the cause by when it trips and see when a type C breaker is enough.
• Welder not welding — no arc Step-by-step checks: supply and extension lead, earth clamp, cables, polarity, damp electrodes, inverter overheating, wire feed and gas on MIG, tungsten and arc start on TIG.

Reference tables

• Steel grade equivalents S235JR = A283 Gr. C = Ст3сп, 1.4301 = AISI 304, 1.4404 = 316L. Cross-reference EN, AISI/ASTM, GOST and PN grades, with weldability notes and substitution rules.
• Current vs electrode diameter Current ranges for 2.0 to 5.0 mm electrodes by position and coating type, in one printable table for the workshop wall.
• MIG/MAG and TIG settings 5–6 mm plate, MAG: 1.0–1.2 mm wire, 160–220 A, 22–25 V. Chart from 0.8 to 12 mm: wire, amps, volts, wire feed speed and gas, plus TIG, thin sheet and box section.
• Tungsten electrode colour codes Green WP for aluminium on AC, blue WL-20 and grey WC-20 for steel and stainless, red WT-20 thoriated. Current by diameter: 1.6 mm carries 70–150 A DC−.
• Welding process numbers What 111, 131, 135, 136, 138, 141 and 311 mean on a WPS and a welder certificate, how 135, 136 and 138 differ, plus the full ISO 4063 table with abbreviations.
• Electrode and wire designations E7018: 490 MPa, all positions, basic low-hydrogen covering. E 42 3 B 32 H5: 420 MPa yield, 47 J at −30 °C. Every digit decoded, with EN ISO 2560 and AWS A5.1 tables.
• Weld imperfection numbers What 401, 5011 and 2011 mean on an inspection report: the full ISO 6520-1 table of weld imperfections in six groups, with the name behind every number.
• Steel section weights Weight per metre for every IPE, HEA, HEB, UPN, UPE and angle size, plus 6 m and 12 m bar weights. UPN 200 — 25.3 kg/m, HEB 200 — 61.3 kg/m. Printable.

Training and work

• What welders earn Why coded TIG on pipe pays about twice plate MAG, how Norway, Germany and Poland compare, and how to compare agency and direct rates net of costs.
• Welder salary in Warsaw Median 7,290 zł gross (January 2026), GUS 7,384 zł, Warsaw job ads 6,000–14,000 zł. Take-home pay, hourly rates, UoP, zlecenie, B2B and what is left after rent.
• Welding course: cost and length How long a course for each process takes, what it costs, what is included in the price and what the certificate you get is worth.
• How to become a welder The route from zero to a qualified welder: which process to learn first, how long training takes, what the EN ISO 9606-1 test involves and how the certificate stays valid.
• Work for foreign welders A non-EU welding certificate is not accepted: re-sit EN ISO 9606-1 in a day, no course. Pay in Poland (median 7,290 zł gross), agency checks, contract, WPS language.
• Welding work in the EU Where welders are short: energy, shipyards, pipe, rail. Which certificate travels, VCA, SCC and GWO safety tickets, posting rules (A1, 12/18/24 months), checking an offer.

Glossary

• Welding glossary Welding terms side by side in nine languages with the EN ISO designation — for reading a WPS or a certificate issued abroad.

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